Jammu and Kashmir, now a union territory of India (formerly a state until October 31, 2019), is situated in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent. It is characterized by the plains surrounding Jammu to the south and the picturesque Vale of Kashmir to the north. This territory forms a part of the larger Kashmir region, which has been a longstanding point of contention between India, Pakistan, and China since the partition of the subcontinent in 1947.
Legislation enacted in August 2019 paved the way for the transition of Jammu and Kashmir from statehood to union territory status, accompanied by the division of a portion of its territory, known as the Ladakh region, into a distinct union territory. This transition officially took place on October 31 of the same year. However, the status of Jammu and Kashmir has remained subject to ongoing legal proceedings in subsequent years.
Historically, Jammu and Kashmir was among the most prominent princely states of India. It shares borders to the east with the Indian union territory of Ladakh, to the south with the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, to the southwest with Pakistan, and to the northwest with the Pakistani-administered part of Kashmir. The administrative capitals are Srinagar during the summer and Jammu during the winter. The territory spans an area of 16,309 square miles (approximately 101,387 square kilometers), and as of the 2011 census, it had a population of 12,367,013
The vast majority of the union territory is characterized by mountainous terrain, with the physiography divided into five distinct zones closely linked to the structural components of the western Himalayas. These zones, arranged from west to east, include the plains, the foothills, the Pir Panjal Range, the Vale of Kashmir, and the Great Himalayas zone. The climate exhibits considerable variation, ranging from alpine conditions on the eastern frontier to subtropical climates in the southwest.
In the alpine regions, average annual precipitation amounts to approximately 3 inches (75 mm), whereas in the subtropical zone around Jammu, rainfall reaches approximately 45 inches (1,150 mm) per year. The entire region is prone to seismic activity, with light to moderate tremors being a common occurrence. Notably, a significant earthquake originating in neighboring Pakistani-administered Kashmir resulted in casualties in Jammu and Kashmir state in 2005.
The Plains:
The plains landscape in the Jammu region is a narrow strip characterized by interlocking sandy alluvial fans, formed by streams emanating from the foothills. Additionally, a dissected pediment, covered by loams and loess dating back to the Pleistocene era (approximately 11,700 to 2,600,000 years old), contributes to the terrain. Precipitation in this region is relatively low, averaging around 15 to 20 inches (380 to 500 mm) per year, primarily occurring as sporadic but intense rain showers during the summer monsoon season (June to September). The landscape is predominantly devoid of trees, with thorn scrub and coarse grasses comprising the dominant vegetation.
The Foothills:
Elevating from approximately 2,000 to 7,000 feet (600 to 2,100 meters), the foothills of the Himalayas encompass both outer and inner zones. The outer zone comprises sandstones, clays, silts, and conglomerates shaped by Himalayan folding movements, resulting in the formation of elongated ridges and valleys known as duns. Meanwhile, the inner zone consists of more substantial sedimentary rock formations, including red sandstones dating back to the Miocene epoch (approximately 5.3 to 23 million years old). These formations have undergone folding, fracturing, and erosion, giving rise to steep spurs and remnants of plateaus. River valleys are deeply entrenched and terraced, while faulting has led to the creation of several alluvium-filled basins, such as those encircling Udhampur and Punch. Precipitation levels rise with altitude, and the lower scrubland transitions to pine forests at higher elevations.
The Pir Panjal Range:
Constituting the southernmost mountain rampart linked with the Himalayas in the union territory, the Pir Panjal Range serves as the westernmost extension of the Lesser Himalayas. With an average crest line standing at 12,500 feet (3,800 meters), individual peaks soar to heights of approximately 15,000 feet (4,600 meters). Composed of an ancient rock core comprising granites, gneisses, quartz rocks, and slates, the range has experienced significant uplift and fracturing. During the Pleistocene Epoch, it was heavily glaciated. The Pir Panjal Range receives substantial precipitation in the form of winter snowfall and summer rainfall and features extensive pasturelands above the tree line. Its principal drainage is facilitated by the Jhelum, Punch, and Chenab rivers.
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